The Future of Low Cost Airlines

The Future of Low Cost Airlines In the last ten years low cost airlines such as  Ryanair and EasyJet have transformed the face of international tourism in  Europe. What is the secret of their success and, bearing in mind the mounting  evidence that short-haul aviation is a major contributor to atmospheric  pollution and global warming, what is their future? Contents (Jump to) Introduction Europe’s Skies After Deregulation Conclusion Bibliography Introduction Ryanair signaled Europe’s entry into the low cost carrier market segment in 1991 when it transformed from a normal regional airline to one based on the U.S. Southwest Airlines model (International Civil Aviation Organization, 2003). In reality, the first successful low cost airlines was Pacific Southwest Airlines that began operations on 6 May 1949 and earned the distinction of low cost as it flew sailors for low fares serving San Francisco, San Diego and Burbank in the state of California (jeypsa.com, 2007). The modern day low cost Southwest Airlines initiated service in 1971 and has managed a profit in every year of operation since 1973, and represents the business model that low cost carriers have emulated (Southwest Airlines, 2007). In achieving a thirty percent yearly growth rate, Ryanair has transformed the market utilizing a strategy of serving the leisure market between Ireland and the United Kingdom, expanding to 22 countries (Ryanair, 2007a). The company has built up on is position of being Europe’s first low fare airline to achieve a brand recognition that carries with it that immediate connection in the minds of consumers. It also has aggressively increased its route structure, provides a pleasurable service experience, conducts memorable advertising, and held upon to pricing strategy to lure consumers (Ericsson, 2007). As a globally successful carrier in terms of profits, flights and passengers, Ryanair serves the fare conscious leisure and business segment of the market (Ryanair, 2007b). Founded by Sir Stellios Haji-Ioannou in October 1995, easyJet serves the leisure and business segment of the market, like its competitor Ryanair, and operates in excess of 200 routes to 65 airports throughout Europe (easyJet, 2007). Like Ryanair, easyJet’s business model is patterned after Southwest Airlines, offering low cost fares, flight convenience and service that is comparable to Ryanair, thus their respective strategies are basically the same, with the exception that easyJet flies to more primary airports than Ryanair which utilizes secondary airports to save on operating costs (easyJet, 2007). Thus, fare pricing, name recognition, branding, services, and destinations are behind the success of this carrier. The success of the low cost carrier concept has taken Europe by storm, introducing the market to a â€Å"†¦ cheap, fast mode of transport †¦Ã¢â‚¬  with the low fare carriers â€Å"†¦ making ambitious expansion plans and placing large orders for new planes† (Bonggeli and Pompeo, 2002). However, there are environmental concerns that have come to the forefront as flying has never been easier, or cheaper, where short distance flights has spurred â€Å"†¦ an increased demand for air travel †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Bowe et al, 2004). Given the relative inexpensiveness of flights, the plethora of destinations, and the ease of Internet booking â€Å"The demand to fly in Europe is forecast to triple by 2030† this has raised serious concerns among environmental groups concerning air pollution as well as the increased rate of greenhouse gas emissions (Bowe et al, 2004). One of the main underpinnings of the low cost airline system popularity is the availability of flights to almost any destination near a suitable airport, either a hub, prime, airport or secondary airport located further from the principle destination which means lower landing fees for carriers, and thus a viable aspect of their internal cost cutting measures (Bo we et al, 2004). The popularity of being able to compare flight costs, travel times, and destinations via Internet booking is a factor that consumers have also taken to, along with the more open travel that has resulted from deregulation that has allowed new entrants into the field. The business model of low cost carriers seek to utilize airports with lower congestion near high population densities, and preferred travel destinations using a single type of airframe to reduce ground maintenance, and crew training/operating costs, to result in a flight turnaround of 25 minutes lacking frills in-flight, and a simple fare structure (ATR, 2006). The preceding operational mode is geared for higher fleet flights, increased labour efficiency, along with lower maintenance, and operating costs (ATR, 2006). Internally, the aircraft have only one passenger class, all with the same seating space, thus increasing cabin density permitting a higher per passenger flight carrying capacity to maximize on space, fuel and extract utilization to support the low fare structure (ATR, 2006). The elimination of food (frills) also eliminates waste, and reduces internal operating costs, add to this equation. Employees at low cost carriers at encouraged not to join trade unions, in order to avoid the unionised working practices that would cut into their efficiency stance (Vella, 2006). All of the foregoing has meant increased flights, resulting in particle emissions in the form of soot, metals, and sulphuric acid that â€Å"†¦ indirectly influence climate change by causing additional cirrus clouds to form †¦Ã¢â‚¬  which traps rising heat (Bowe et al, 2004). The environmental concern has resulted in the European Commission announcing a proposal in December 2006 that would call for airlines that fly â€Å"†¦ within the European Union to follow carbon dioxide emissions trading in 2001 †¦Ã¢â‚¬  which would be imposed on all other flights in 2012 (The Washington Times, 2006). Under the plan, â‚ ¬1.80 and â‚ ¬9 would be added to the cost of tickets for intra European flights, and higher fees imposed for long haul flights (International Herald Tribune, 2006). The preceding means that alternative short trip transportation has become an increasing competitor. Alternative short trip transportation is represented by high-speed rail that results i n substantially reduced CO2 emissions, which are estimated as being approximately 300% lower than air flight transport (Bowe et al, 2004). Ryanair is combating the new emission policy through the purchase of newer fuel-efficient airframes that carry more passengers, and in spite of using more fuel still generate less emission (Airline Bulletin, 2007). The airline, Ryanair, emits an estimated â€Å"†¦ two to three tonnes of harmful greenhouse gases †¦Ã¢â‚¬  which makes it one of Ireland’s largest corporate polluters (UK – Airport – News.info, 2006). It is estimated that it would take 2.25 million trees until 2076 to offset the emission created by Ryanair in 2005 alone, not to mention its continued operations, or roughly one fifth of Ireland would have to be planted with trees for each one year of the company’s operation (UK – Airport – News.info, 2006). Low cost airlines are projected to capture 25% of the intra-European market by 2010 up from the 5% through 7% recorded during 2004 and 2005 (Schneiderbaur and Fainsilber, 2006). The issues of pollution as well as competition from high-speed short haul rail travel, and intense competition within the low cost segment that will bring about consolidation are environmental, and competitive issues, however the European appetite for the fast transportation solutions posed by low cost carriers will not be severely impacted by alternative transportation or environmental issues as airlines will defend and adapt to changing issues. The airline industry is a highly concentrated one, with half of all airframes operated by just 17 carriers (AirlinesGate, 2001). The United States airline industry was deregulated in 1978, prior to which there was a governmental agency that â€Å"†¦ determined the routes each airline flew and oversaw the prices they charged† (AirlinesGate, 2001). The Civil Aeronautics Board in 1976 asked the United States congress to eliminate the governmental regulatory system to allow the industry to operate under free market forces, which was followed by the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 (Stanford University, 2001). The Airline industry in Europe, prior to a series of liberalisation measures that started in 1987, was a highly regulated market with a number of state owned airlines receiving subsidies, and the restriction that only national flag carriers could fly between countries (AirlinesGate, 2001). Subsidies and restricted access limited the ability of new entrants, and kept fare s high, as well as limited service as the airline cartels set prices, and determined service. The airline industry in Europe prior to deregulation consisted of restricted bilateral agreements between the flag carriers of two countries, usually setting limits or terms concerning capacity, revenue sharing and fares (Button, 1996, pp. 70-80). The European airline industry under a traditional bilateral agreement consisted of a singular â€Å"†¦ designated airline per route from each country†, with the only routes permitted were those as specified in these agreements (Doganis, 1994, pp. 15-25). In terms of capacity, there was a 50- 50 sharing agreement, and the fares were subject to the approval of the government of both countries as negotiated through the International Air Transport Association (Doganis, 1994, pp. 15-25). Under liberalized bilateral agreements the airlines now operated under multiple designations, with open market access, capacity controls were eliminated, and fares were rejected only if the governments of both countries disapproved (Doganis, 1994, pp. 15-25). The 1993 European Union deregulation package provided for a uniform licensing criteria for airlines in all countries belonging to the EU, and eliminated distinctions regarding scheduled, and non-scheduled service. In terms of routes, it p rovides for open market access in all European Union countries, with capacity sharing restrictions removed (Doganis, 1994, pp. 15-25). Lastly, airlines were free to price fares with a very limited double disapproval, and it imposed safeguards concerning predatory fare pricing. Europe’s Skies After Deregulation The European Union embarked upon the road of the deregulation of airline policy in the latter part of 1980, proceeding on a staggered basis starting with the 1987 deregulation package under the Treaty of Rome competition articles (Button and Swan, 1996, pp. 259-282). This allowed for the EU to grant exemptions concerning the rules, thus gradually phasing in the process of deregulation to provide for an orderly entry towards liberalisation and the successive packages to follow (Button and Swan, 1996, pp. 259-282). The three-phased process ended in 1997 whereby carriers were granted permission to operate domestic routes throughout the EU (Button and Swan, 1996, pp. 259-282). The importance of the gradual process of deregulation eliminated the monopoly power that was in place that represented economic regulation that eliminated free competition and under economic theory lowers productivity, resulting in higher prices, and creates inefficiency (Winston, 1993, pp. 1263-1289). In effect th e higher profits expected in a regulated environment that resulted in monopolistic power was offset by higher operating costs due to inefficiencies. Deregulation set the grounds for increased freedom in pricing, and thus increased operating efficiencies as a result of competition as new firms could enter a market and through their improved operations offer lower prices thus taking market share (Doganis, 1994, pp. 15-25). Deregulation represented a change in route structures that was one of the most important aspects (Morrison and Winston, 1989, pp. 61-122). As a result of deregulation national flag carriers have had to contend with new entrants thereby increasing competitive pressures as well as fare changes. The preceding open door for new market entrants has seen a significant increase in regional airlines, and the low cost airlines (AirlinesGate, 2001). Increased competition has caused airline management to improve operations, introduce and seek new technologies, and overall heighten operational management sophistication and marketing. The marketing model of low cost carriers in providing low cost fares to markets through high flight utilization lowered internal operating costs, use where possible of secondary lower fee airports, higher airframe seating capacity, and no in-flight services providing European’s with new options concerning the manner they thought about air travel. The leisure class was affected the most in that the dramatically lower fares enabled consumers to think about three and four day get-aways and mini vacations outside of traditional vacation periods, developing to the point where weekends fitted the mode. Prior to deregulation, â€Å"†¦ the market was neatly divided †¦ (with) †¦ Scheduled carriers, focusing primarily on business travelers, controlled 75 percent of the intra-European market† and charter airline controlling the remaining 25 percent (Bonggeli and Pompeo, 2002). Charter airlines sold aircraft time and seating capacity to tour operators for tourists seeking sun filled vacations (Bonggeli and Pompeo, 2002). Low cost carriers changed these dynamics through their one passenger class, increased airframe seating, fast flight turnaround, no frills, Internet booking business model. These factors permitted low cost carriers to fares that are 50 to 70 percent lower than the flag carriers, or incumbents, attracting price sensitive travelers, but not appealing as much regarding the convenience and flexibility business travelers seek, even though Ryanair has managed to snag a goodly percentage of business travelers (Bonggeli and Pompeo, 2002). And the growth of t he low cost carriers has not come at the expense of the incumbents, but rather as a result of their pricing and service policies. Lower fares have prompted people to fly as a result of increased affordability, opting for planes over rail, vehicles or not traveling at all (Shelley, 2005). And this extends even to the business segment of the market where companies that normally could not afford the expense of a business trip can schedule fares to conduct business on a face-to-face basis (Shelley, 2005). The large number of low cost flights as a result of the increased number of carriers means that finding a flight to suit business parameters is an easy task as a result of Internet booking. Thus the low cost model has grown not as a result of stealing market share, but rather from expanding the consumer base. Low Cost airlines compete on price as opposed to quality, utilizing the aforementioned one passenger class, increased airframe seating, fast flight turnaround, no frills, Internet booking business model. However, the application of the preceding does vary. Ryanair, for example, primarily operates its routes to secondary airports, reaping the benefits of dramatically reduced airport fees that on average are 65 percent below primary airports (Bonggeli and Pompeo, 2002). This internal operational method permits Ryanair to offer fares that are the lowest in the industry, yet turn a profit when more than 55 percent of its seats are occupied (Bonggeli and Pompeo, 2002). EasyJet, which generally flies into main airports, and on average flies to its destinations three times per week as opposed to Ryanair’s two, needs a 75 percent capacity rate (Bonggeli and Pompeo, 2002). EasyJet, because of its increased flight schedule, contends that 50 percent of its passengers tend to be traveling on business (Bonggeli and Pompeo, 2002). The competitive nature of the industry to induce trial has seen Ryanair offer seats for free, requiring passengers to pay just the flight taxes and services charges, that usually amount to around â‚ ¬19 or more, each way (Rockmael, 2005). The elimination of assigned seating, decent legroom, complimentary meals and or beverages, baggage policies and limited service are how low cost carriers cut costs. Competition in this segment has increased to the point whereby there are approximately 60 low cost carriers in Europe, with names such as Flybaboo, JetFree, JetMagaic, Duo, Volareweb.com, Air Berlin, Germanwings and BMIbaby, to name a few (Rockmael, 2005). The efficiency drive at low cost carriers in cutting costs and utilizing standardized operations, and equipment has resulted in, on average, that they need just 80 employees to support each aircraft as opposed to the 115 utilized by incumbents (The Economist, 2004). And in Europe Internet booking has really caught on representing 99 percent of all low cost booking, as opposed to just 75 percent in the United States (The Economist, 2004). Search engines such as wegolo.com, applefares.com, searchlowestfares.com, skyscanner.net and openjet.com aid consumers in finding the lowest fares (Rockmael, 2005). The dynamics of travel in Europe are influenced by a number of geographical factors. In countries such as France, Spain and even Germa ny, low cost travel for pleasure as well as business can also be accomplished by high-speed rail, thus making alternative transport forms more competitive, which is not the case in the United Kingdom (Bonggeli and Pompeo, 2002). High-speed rail gains an advantage in that the departures are from city centre to city centre, thus cutting down on the time to commute to airports and the extra money for cabs or parking fees and gas. This explains the lower growth deferential of low cost carriers on Europe’s continent, as opposed to in the United Kingdom (Airline Bulletin, 2007). Located outside continental Europe, the UK has a higher concentration of easy to reach airports, also balanced with a high level of business and leisure traffic that does not have alternative travel means to the continent. The preceding has been a factor in the tremendous growth of low cost carriers based out of the UK on flights traveling to the continent that has increased by a rate of 25 percent, as oppo sed to intra European flights. Traveling to the UK has increased by just 3 percent, in all making the United Kingdom Europe’s biggest low cost market (Bonggeli and Pompeo, 2002). Security issues at UK airports are resulting in delays in check-in that is affecting the low cost business model that calls for faster flight turnarounds resulting in massive flight cancellations (Capell, 2006). Air travel has changed dramatically from the glamour industry it once was, to one of transporting people. Fares have dropped to the point whereby a flight from London to Turin, Italy, can be as low as  £10 each way, plus  £15 in taxes (Backman, 2002). Ryanair grounded 270 of 750 departures during the summer of 2006, and easyJet suffered in excess of 500 cancelled flights as a result of new security rules delaying boarding (Backman, 2002). The higher security rules are threatening the UK’s low cost carriers, who are thinking of imposing a carry on luggage rule to combat the problem, and potentially adding limited food and drink to passengers to compensate passengers for their inconvenience (Backman, 2002). As a result, the increased delays, and higher ticket costs a s a result of taxes have turned some passengers off utilizing short haul air flights. The preceding situation is aiding rail travel as passenger seek a less restrictive travel means in the UK as well as getting to continental Europe. Eurostar, which provides high speed rail to the continent has seen their passenger traffic increase 27 percent between the 10th and 13th of August 2006 as a result (Airline Bulletin, 2006). Conclusion The issues of pollution, the CO2 emissions trading scheme, higher low cost fare taxes, airport security issues, alternative high speed rail travel, and stiffening competition presents new obstacles to the continued growth of low cost carriers. Thus low cost carriers are looking at long haul routes to offset a slowing short haul market, bringing them into more direct competition with incumbents such as British Airways, and British Midlands, both of whom â€Å"†¦ have cut some fares on a range of short haul routes †¦Ã¢â‚¬  as have â€Å"†¦ KLM and Scandinavian Airlines †¦ and Lufthansa †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Bonggeli and Pompeo, 2002). This means that incumbents represent another competitor factor facing low cost carriers as they see the high in sector competition weakening their position, thus providing a means for them to further eroded growth and recapture some business themselves in a market that does have finite growth potential. The weaker players in the low cost segment â€Å"†¦ such as SkyEurope and Hungary’s Wizz †¦Ã¢â‚¬  have higher survivability risks as newer entrants which the industry predicts will weed out weaked carriers through consolidation and business model failures (Capell, 2006). The continued realities of rising flight taxes, airport security issues, and carriers such as British Airways, KLM and Lufthansa, to name a few, are making concerted efforts to dip into the low cost model on selected high traffic routes, even though collectively, meaning the UK and continental Europe, holds just 7 percent of all intra European travel in terms of passengers flown, and are still short of the 25 percent market share achieved by low cost carriers in the United States. And that is the reason for the attack of incumbents now, as opposed to waiting for what happened to their U.S. counterparts (Forbes.com, 2002). Incumbents and low cost carriers are converging in terms of each sector looking at the others markets as a means to increased passenger travel, with each adopting some of the features of the others operational model as Europe’s skies become more blended in terms of competing for growth and revenues. Thus the reduction of frills is bringing some incumbents into the province of the low cost carriers to block further passenger inroads. The future for low cost carriers is seemingly summed up by an article in USA Today (2003) that sees Ryanair and easyJets dominant positions, and UK flying base as long-term positives, while low cost competitors on the continent will face increasing competitive pressures from these two dominant players as well as from other low cost carriers and incumbents. Bibliography Airline Bulletin (2007) Is Ryanair the Low-Fare, High Emissions Airline? 7 January 2007. Retrieved on 9 March 2007 from http://www.airlinebulletin.com/ryanair/index.html Airline Bulletin (2006) Security Fallout on European Low-Cost Airlines. 14 August 2006. Retrieved on 8 March 2007 from http://www.airlinebulletin.com/european_carriers/index.html AirlinesGate (2001) Airline Industry. Retrieved on 7 March 2007 from http://airlinesgate.free.fr/industry.htm ATR (2006) Low-fare, Low-cost Business Model in Europe: A Risk or a Chance for Regional Carriers? Retrieved on 7 March 2007 from http://www.atraircraft.com/downl/Fiche low-cost 2005.pdf Backman, M. (2002) Europe shows the way with dirt-cheap flights. 30 May 2002. Retrieved on 8 March 2007 from http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2002/05/29/1022569791615.html Bowe, R., Hartley, K., O’Connor, R. (20) Flying the Dirty Skies: Environmental Fallout from the Low-budget Travel Craze. September – October 2004. Vol. 15. E Magazine Binggeli, U., Pompeo, L. (2002) Hyped Hopes for Europe’s Low Cost Airlines: Europe’s Most Successful No-Frills Carriers are Making a Lot of Money, but as They Mature They Will Have Problems Expanding. The McKinsey Quarterly Button, K. (1996) Aviation Deregulation in the European Union: Do Actors Learn in the Regulation Game? Vol. 14, Number 1. Contemporary Economic Policy Button, K., Swan, D. (1996) European Community Airlines – Deregulation and its Problems. Vol. 27, Number 4. Journal of common Market Studies Capell, K. (2006) A Low Season for Low Cost Airlines? 16 August 2006. Retrieved on 8 March 2007 from http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/aug2006/gb20060816_732287.htm Doganis, R. (1994) The Impact of Liberalisation on European Airline Strategies and Operations. Vol. 1, Number 1. Journal of Air Transport Management easyJet (2007) Company overview. Retrieved on 6 March 2007 from http://www.easyjet.com/EN/About/Information/index.html Ericsson (2007) The Ryanair Success Story. Price as Brand. Retrieved on 6 March 2007 from http://www.ericsson.com/telecomreport/article.asp?aid=10tid=85ma=1msa=3 Forbes.com (2002) Hyped Hopes for Europe’s Low Cost Airlines. 10 October 2002. Retrieved on 9 March 2007 from http://www.forbes.com/technology/futuretech/2002/10/10/1010mckinsey.html International Civil Aviation Organization (2003) The Impact of Low Cost Carriers in Europe. Retrieved on 6 March 2007 from http://www.icao.int/icao/en/atb/ecp/CaseStudies/Europe_LowCost_En.pdf International Herald Tribune (2006) EU to include airlines in carbon trading program. 20 December 2006. International Herald Tribune jetpsa (2007) The History of PSA. Retrieved on 6 March 2007 from http://www.jetpsa.com/index/history.html Morrison, S., Winston, C. (1989) Enhancing the Performance of the Deregulated Air Transportation System. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity Rockmael, K. (2005) The Dark Side of Europe’s Low-Fare Airlines. 25 February 2005. Retrieved on 8 March 2007 from http://www.budgettravelonline.com/bt-dyn/content/article/2005/06/04/AR2005060400819.html Ryanair (2007a) About Us. Retrieved on 6 March 2007 from http://www.ryanair.com/site/EN/about.php?page=About Ryanair (2007b) Strategy. Retrieved on 6 March 2007 from http://www.ryanair.com/site/about/invest/docs/Strategy.pdf Schneiderbauer, D., Fainsilber, O. (2006) Low-cost Airlines Gaining Momentum in Europe. Retrieved on 7 March 2007 from http://www.mercermc.com/Perspectives/Specialty/MOT_pdfs/3-Low-Cost Airlines.pdf Shelley, M. (2005) Get off to e flying start. 24 November 2005. Daily Record Southwest Airlines (2007) We Weren’t Just Airborne Yesterday. Retrieved on 6 March 2007 from http://www.southwest.com/about_swa/airborne.html Stanford University (2001) The Airline Industry. Retrieved on 7 March 2007 from http://adg.stanford.edu/aa241/intro/airlineindustry.html The Economist (24) Turbulent skies. 8 July 2004. The Economist The Washington Times (2006) Europeans Eye Tough Emissions Rules for Airlines. 21 December 2006. The Washington Times UK-Airport-News.info (2006) Ryanair tops Irish air pollution league. 26 February 2006. Retrieved on 9 March 2007 from http://www.uk-airport-news.info/stansted-airport-news-260206a.htm USA Today (2003) European low-cost airlines fly high, but face hard landing. Retrieved on 8 March 2007 from http://www.usatoday.com/travel/news/2003-11-03-europe-lowcost_x.htm Winston, C. (1993) Economic Deregulation: Days of Reckoning for Macroeconomists. Vol. 31. Journal of Economic Literature Vella, M. (2006) The thrills of no-frills. 12 November 2006. Retrieved on 7 March 2007 from http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/2006/11/12/t8.html

Rubber Manufacturing Industries Need A Large Amount Of Hot Air Environmental Sciences Essay

Latex is the basic natural stuff required to bring forth baseball mitts. The latex is collected from the gum elastic trees and the fresh latex is centrifuged and pre treated at the gum elastic aggregation centres. The quality of the concluding merchandise depends on the quality of latex and the composing of the chemical mixtures used in the fabrication procedure. At the following phase the porcelain formers are immersed in acid and basic solutions, so brushed and rinsed with hot H2O and prohibitionist. The Calorific value of a fuel is a step of heating power which depends on the composing of the fuel. The Calorific value is the sum of energy given out when a known volume of a fuel is wholly combusted under specified conditions. When taking a fuel for the industry the undermentioned factors should be considered. Calorific Value It is better to take a fuel which can give more Calories per unit weight. The fuels which contain O have a lesser calorific value. Ignition Temperature The minimal temperature for which the fuel oxidant mixture should be heated so that the burning reaction would happen is called the ignition temperature. High ignition temperature makes the fuel tougher to light and low ignition temperature makes the fuel easier to light and this makes the fuel potentially risky. When the activation energy is high, the ignition temperature besides will be high. Volatility Volatility is the fuel let go ofing combustible gases ( bluess ) . When the boiling point of the fuel is high the fuel is less volatile. And besides when the vapor force per unit area is high the fuel is more volatile. The volatility of any fuel could be increased by increasing the temperature since the vapor force per unit area besides increases with the temperature. A fuel with high volatility can easy organize a flammable or explosive mixture with air. Liquid fuels are volatile plenty to bring forth combustible bluess such as ethyl alcohol and gasoline or bring forth adequate combustible bluess such as kerosine when heated at room temperature. Solid fuels have a high ignition temperature compared to liquid and gaseous fuels. Flash point The minimal temperature at which a pure liquid fuel should be heated so the vapor force per unit area is high plenty for an explosive mixture to be formed with air when the liquid is so allow to evapourate and is brought to reach with a fire, flicker or hot fiament is called the flash point. The brassy point is lesser than the ignition temperature. A fuel which has a brassy point much above room temperature such as kerosine, can be handled safely at room temperature because it will non detonate when exposed to fires, flickers and hot fibrils. A fuel which has a brassy point below the room temperature such as gasoline and intoxicant, will detonate when exposed to fires, flickers and hot fibrils. Therefore these fuels should be stored in a ice chest topographic point in order to impede the rise of the vapour force per unit area of the fuel due to increase in temperature. The topographic point should besides be good ventilated so that there would be no accretion of any at large vapor. And they must be stored in metal robust metal containers with oral cavities narrow and palpebras sealed tightly to forestall the vapor from get awaying. Ease of Liquefaction Gass take a big volume, but liquids of the same mass take a lesser volume which makes them easier to transport. The temperature at which a gas can be liquefied or condensed by increasing the force per unit area is called the critical temperature. The fuel should incorporate low content of non combustible stuffs, drosss when heated could do pollution and give out risky gases. An ideal fuel must non foul the environment by bring forthing harmful substances. The handiness of fuel The cost of fuels Different fuels used in Boilers Different types of fuels, solids liquid and gases are used in boilers. Combination of certain fuels are used sometimes in order to better the public presentation of the boiler. The fuels normally used in boilers are fossil fuels, RDFs and biomass. Petroleum, coal and natural gases are usually used in ICI boilers. Some common fuels used in boilers are listed below. Coal Coal is a sedimentary stone like substance composed fundamentally of chemically altered works stuffs which grew in prehistoric woods. It is a blackish brown combustible substance. From one topographic point to another the chemical composing of the coal differs depending on the environmental conditions like the force per unit area and temperature. Its major chemical components are C, H, N and O. It besides constitutes of a small sum of H2O and drosss like ash, quicksilver and S chiefly. Coal is one of the cheapest fuels available and quite wantonness. But the disadvantages of utilizing coal are that it is less overall boiler efficient. And the handling and storing of coal should be considered carefully. The storing and disposing of ash besides should be considered. Coal needs a greater intervention of flue gases before dispatching in order to do certain that they do non harm the environment. By merchandise waste Any sort of gaseous or liquid produced at chemical workss or in crude oil refineries except natural gases, residuary oil or distillate oil and are combusted in a steam bring forthing unit to retrieve heat or dispose. Biomass Biomass are organic affair and are non fossil fuels. Wood, rice hulls, bagasse, java evidences, and baccy roots are some biomass stuffs. Coal garbage This is the waste merchandises when coal is mined, cleaned and fixing operations incorporating coal, matrix stuff, clay and other organic or inorganic substances. Distillate oil fuels These are oils which contain 0.05 wt % N or less and comply with the specification for fuel oil. Municipal type solid waste and RDF These are the garbage of which more than 50 % waste incorporating a mixture of paper, wood, yard waste, nutrient wastes, plastics, leather, gum elastic, and other incombustible stuffs such as metal, glass, and stone, that are usually removed before burning. Natural gas It is a mixture of hydrocarbon gases found in geologic formations under the surface of the Earth happening of course with the chief content methane, or LP gas. Oils Crude oil, crude oil or liquid fuel obtained from either rough oil or crude oil, besides including distillation and residuary oil. Propane Propane is a fossil fuel prepared from petroleum crude oil and natural gas and is heavy gaseous. Residual oil Crude oil and fuel oil These are oils which have 0.05 wt % or greater N content. Solvent-derived fuel Any solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel derived from solid fuel to make utile heat. This include solvent-refined coal, liquified coal, and angasified coal. Very low S oil These are Oils which contain no more than 0.5 wt % S and which when has a SO emissions rate that is equal to or less than 215 ng/J ( 0.5 lb/MBtu ) heat end product when burning takes topographic point without SO emanation control. Wood Wood, wood residue, bark, or any derivative fuel or residue. And including, sawdust, sanderdust, wood french friess, garbages, slabs, milling shaves, and processed pellets made from wood or other forest merchandises. Wood residue Bark, sawdust, slabs, french friess, shaves, factory trim, and other wood merchandises derived from wood processing and forest direction operations.1.4Energy has become a really of import standard of advancement today because it facilitates the human life. It is one of the Primary demands of people today. But Energy has become a terrible challenge to adult male today. Energy engineerings have become one of the chief causes for many chief environmental jobs which is a world-wide subject of treatment. The speedy exhaustion of the energy beginnings of the universe has besides become a major job. There are many issues in the universe refering the energy supply. Therefore dendro power could be used as an alternate beginning of energy in order to carry through the energy demands for industrial intents in States like Srilanka. The coevals of electricity utilizing sustainable adult biomass such as fuel wood is known as dendro power. Biomass accounts about more than 55 % of entire energy ingestion of Sri Lanka. Chiefly fuel wood is used for cookery and warming intents in industries. Biomass energy could besides be described as electricity and liquid fuels produced with works affair. The works affair could be harvest residues, particularly from adult harvests, and in some instances from refuse. Electricity could be produced utilizing all these stuffs via advanced methods which are cleaner and more efficient than firing. By chemical processing they besides can be turned into transit fuels like ethyl alcohol. Wood is being used as an industrial fuel to bring forth dendro power for electricity coevals and warming applications in many topographic points of the universe. Industrialized states such as Sweden, the Netherlands, Finland, Denmark, Austria, the USA and the UK in the western universe have been utilizing wood as a fuel to bring forth electricity since many old ages. The distribution of electricity can be done in two ways, as grid connected and off-grid power supply. Dendro power has wider possibility to bring forth power for long term, for grid connexions and off-grid communities. Merely about 15 % to 20 % of the off-grid population in Srilanka can fulfill their energy demands by solar power and small town hydro power. Dendro power can be established to function off-grid communities who can non afford solar power and do non hold the hydro power. Dendro power is a community-based electricity bring forthing engineering which comprises all families in a small town regardless of their income degree. One of the the chief manner to bring forth electricity in Sri Lanka is by utilizing Petroleum in order to get the better of the energy deficit. But this is non an appropriate manner for a underdeveloped state like Srilanka since the cost is really high due to the increasing monetary value of non renewable resources as crude oil will exaust in another 30 to 40 old ages and coal in around 200 old ages. The coevals of Dendro Power in Srilanka has high potency due to the undermentioned grounds, Srilanka already has practical experience in bring forthing dendro power which was started by persons and the private sector for their ain usage. Biomass feedstock can be obtained as a natural stuff for bring forthing electricity. The underutilized, non used and degraded province land could be converted into dendro plantations. The possibility of actuating private landholders to put in dendro plantations is besides considered promising. The generation-long pattern of tree agriculture as a constituent of land-based supports in Sri Lanka is a capital plus when advancing dendro energy. There are potencies to utilize fast turning species, aiming woodfuel production, as good as utilizing coppicing techniques to supply feedstock. The Energy in any state is a major factor that gives a complete thought about the industries of the state. As the energy taken from the Hydro-Power workss is limited, there must be good options for making the of all time increasing power demandQuestion 33.1Sanitation means the hygienic method of insulating the jeopardies that could be caused due to reach of waste with human to advance wellness. Human Beings generate a batch of waste such as body waste, piss, effluent, solid wastes, industrial and agricultural wastes. These wastes could incorporate risky substances like microbic pathogens and risky chemicals, which could be harmful to human wellness. Improper sanitation installations and solid and H2O disposal systems in edifices could make a batch of jobs. Some of them are, There is a high opportunity of distributing infective diseases such as cholera, enteric fever, infective hepatitis, infantile paralysis, cryptosporidiosis, and ascariasis. Peoples are exposed daily to an unpleasant environment. When rivers and other H2O organic structures are contaminated with these wastes, they could impact the other life species excessively which is a menace to the ecological balance of the environment. Discharge of untreated waste pollutes the imbibing H2O. Enters into the nutrient concatenation ( eg: through fruits, veggies, fish etc ) Provides an environment for insects that spread diseases to engender. When industrial waste is sent into the environment heavy metals, toxic organic and inorganic substances can do serious menace to people and the environment. For an illustration, in some parts of China, due to irrigation done with waste H2O contaminated to a great extent with industrial waste for many old ages is reported to hold produced tonss of wellness jobs which includes expansion of the liver, malignant neoplastic diseases and raised rates of inborn deformity rates, compared to countries where effluent was non used for irrigation. When there is a high concentration of Nitrates in waste H2O in belowground beginnings, it associates with methaemoglobinaemia ( bluish babe syndrome ) when this contaminated H2O is used in preparing of infant provender. There could be extra foods in H2O beginnings which will ensue in giantism of algae and harmful cyan bacteriums which produce toxins that cause skin annoyance and liver harm.3.2While planing healthful systems for edifices one should guarantee that safe and adequate drainage from a edifice and suited and equal commissariats of healthful installations are provided. The effluent and surface H2O from the edifice should be carried to an appropriate disposal country. Some constituents in effluent systems are, Septic armored combat vehicles Pipes Manholes Gulley The followers are some factors to be considered when planing a healthful system. Measures should be taken in order to forestall the flight of disgusting air into the environment and command the force per unit area. This could be done by sealing and venting the drainage system in a proper manner. A drainage system should be decently designed and constructed in order to minimise the hazards of obstruction and implosion therapy. A drainage system should be suitably tested in order to guarantee acceptable installing, If any discharge sent into a drainage system functioning a brooding containing silt or grit, equal installations to divide and take those substances must be made. If any discharge sent into a drainage system functioning a edifice, except a home, contains oil, fat, lubricating oil, volatile substances, silt or grit, appropriate installations to adequately separate and take such substances must be made. A drainage system must dispatch the surface H2O by suited techniques by directing it to a soak off, to a public cloaca or to a suited topographic point where there will be minimal hazards of fouling the environment. In Sri Lanka, in general, waste H2O and disgusting H2O articulation together and are disposed to infected armored combat vehicles in rural countries or to foul H2O cloaca in urban countries. The sewage in the disgusting H2O cloaca is discharged to a intervention works where it is settled, filtered and chemically treated. Surface H2O can be discharged into soak off to a river or a lake in rural countries or to the surface H2O drain in urban countries. The surface H2O drain discharges H2O safely to a river or a lake. A separate system of drainage is used where the disgusting H2O and surface H2O are separated at beginning and piped separately to a surface H2O drain or disgusting H2O drain. Private effluent intervention works or infected armored combat vehicles Must be suited for its intent. Must incorporate a suited screen which is sealed and secure. Must have installations to supply entree for inspecting and sampling of the waste H2O discharge. Must be located at a minimal distance from the edifice in order to forestall amendss t the foundation. Should minimise environmental hazards. Must have entree for the procedure of de-sludging. Any commercial or industrial edifices must supply a sufficient figure of healthful installations for their staff and people other than the staff depending on their figure. Sufficient figure of H2O cupboard cells must be provided in edifices to ease the motion within the cells. Suitable healthful installations for the handicapped people must be provided. Every lavatory must be provided with a wash basin within the lavatory or in an next infinite near the lavatory. Blushing cistern and trough, automatic flushing cistern, blushing valve, H2O cupboards, bidets, urinals, are some common healthful contraptions t be fitted. The pipe work and adjustments which carry effluent and surface H2O should be of right size and installed to minimise the opportunities of escape or obstruction. Some of the drainage systems that could be designed are, Separate drainage systems In this system ever the surface and disgusting H2O are separated. In this instance the sewage intervention works would ne'er acquire overloaded during wet conditions. Combined Drain system In this system some or all surface H2O joins the disgusting H2O drainage system. A combined system is non recommended to be used. It joins all or some of the waste H2O with the disgusting H2O system. By and large the cost of installing and running of sewage intervention works could be minimized by put ining a separate system. Because of this ground a separate system is recommended by local governments. Many jobs could happen due to improper installing of drainage systems. They are, Back force per unit area Back force per unit area is the force per unit area which opposes the coveted flow of any fluid in a confined topographic point like a pipe and is caused frequently due to tight decompression sicknesss or hinderance in the confinement vas along which it moves ( pipes or air blowholes ) . Due to bad designing, the H2O fluxing could acquire compressed in the air pipes and force out the trap H2O seal. This could be prevented by non linking waste pipes to the lower 450 millimeter of perpendicular tonss ( when measurings are taken from the underside of the horizontal drain ) . The waste discharged from the lower floors should be connected to the drain individually. mebs6000_1011_05_Drainage_page28_image1.jpg Self-Siphonage Self siponage may happen if a wash basin is excessively steep a gradient. In such state of affairss the contents of in the trap are sucked out into the waste pipe due to fast flow of H2O which empties the trap. This could be avoided by puting limitations on lengths and gradients and besides by venting long or steep gradients. mebs6000_1011_05_Drainage_page26_image1.jpg Two pipe foul H2O system Foul H2O means the waste H2O from baths, basins, showers and etc and dirt H2O discharged from lavatories. The one pipe system contains fewer pipes and is more hygienic. Therefore this system is recommended over the two pipe systems. In the two pipe system there are separate blowholes from each healthful equipments and they are joined into a combined blowhole stack.605.gif3.4Surface H2O means the H2O that is collected on the land, watercourses, lakes, rivers, oceans or any other H2O organic structures which is related to H2O degree Celsius Surface H2O is H2O roll uping on the land or in a watercourse, river, lake, wetland, or ocean ; it is related to H2O roll uping as groundwater or atmospheric H2O. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.bsenotes.com/ hypertext transfer protocol: //phcjam.blogspot.com/ figures hypertext transfer protocol: //www.cibse.org/pdfs/Shouler.pdf hypertext transfer protocol: //www.mech.hku.hk/bse/MEBS6000/mebs6000_1011_05_Drainage.pdf hypertext transfer protocol: //efsl.lk/details.aspx? catid=3

Bipolar Disorder ( Bd ) - 2178 Words

Bipolar disorder (BD) is a severe and chronic neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by alternating episodes of major depression and mania. Episodes of mania are characterized by a distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated mood and increased goal-oriented activity lasting at least one week. Diagnostic criteria for BD have shown two subsets of BD (BD I and BD II), which are differentiated by the severity of the manic episodes. BD I is characterized by traditional manic episodes while BD II is characterized by hypomanic episodes, which are less severe than manic episodes, experienced in BD I. Major depressive episodes are characterized by pervasive and persistent low mood that is accompanied by low self-esteem and anhedonia (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). 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Company Directors Of The United Kingdom Annotated...

DISQUALIFICATION OF COMPANY DIRECTORS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Newspaper Article Blitz R, ‘Former Rangers FC owner banned as director’ Financial Times (London, 30 September 2014) accessed 14 November 2016 This newspaper article brings out a good practical example of the law of disqualification of directors in the United Kingdom. Craig Whyte has been disqualified from being a director for 15 years; the maximum number of years a director can be disqualified, because he failed to avoid conflict of interest. The article sets out details of his offenses which include failure to consult other directors on business decisions, making the club enter into a deal which made it fund its own shares, avoid tax obligations and lastly failed to disclose that he was already banned from being a director for 7 years in the year 2000. However, the exact sections of the law under which he is convicted are not mentioned. 2. 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